If you have been reading about prothymosin alpha and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-03-25. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acid residues that corresponds to a naturally occurring fragment first isolated from thymus tissue. Its chain is acetylated at the amino terminus, a modification that shields the peptide from rapid cleavage by aminopeptidases. The molecule carries a net negative charge at physiological pH and dissolves freely in water. Researchers classify it as an immune-modulating agent rather than a classical hormone, because it acts on several cell types of both the innate and the adaptive immune system.
The peptide was identified during work in the 1970s on thymosin fraction 5, a partially purified extract of calf thymus. Investigators separated that mixture and characterized individual components, one of which they named thymosin alpha-1. The same compound later received the international nonproprietary name thymalfasin. Commercial material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than by extraction, so synthetic and natural forms share an identical sequence. Naming conventions vary across the literature, and readers should distinguish the alpha-1 peptide from other thymosins that have unrelated sequences and functions.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide of 28 amino acid residues that derives from the amino terminal region of a larger precursor protein known as prothymosin alpha. The peptide carries an acetyl group on its first residue and contains no disulfide bonds or carbohydrate chains. Its sequence is highly conserved across mammalian species, which is one reason laboratories treat it as a molecule with a defined and reproducible structure rather than a variable tissue extract. The name follows an early naming convention for thymus-derived fractions and does not imply that the peptide acts as a hormone in the classical endocrine sense.
Biologically, the peptide is studied mainly in the context of immune cell development and regulation. It is produced in the thymus and in several other tissues, and it appears to influence the maturation and activity of T cells and other immune populations. Laboratory work describes effects on cytokine production, on the balance between T cell subsets, and on the function of dendritic cells. Much of this evidence comes from cell culture and animal models, so the extent to which the same pathways operate in humans remains an open question.
The molecule consists of 28 amino acid residues with an acetyl group attached to the N-terminal serine. Its sequence is acidic overall, with several glutamic and aspartic acid residues distributed along the chain and no cysteine, so disulfide bridges do not form. The peptide carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. Because the N-terminus is blocked, the intact molecule resists degradation by many aminopeptidases, which contributes to its stability in biological fluids.
The peptide is generated in cells by cleavage of prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein encoded by the PTMA gene. Prothymosin alpha is expressed in many tissues, not only in the thymus, and its functions include nuclear roles in chromatin-related processes. The 28-residue fragment corresponds to the N-terminal portion of that precursor. How the cleavage occurs and how the fragment's concentration is regulated remain open questions; circulating amounts are small and difficult to measure reliably with routine assays.
=== Diabetes === Empagliflozin is indicated in adults with type 2 diabetes and established cardiovascular disease to reduce the risk of cardiovascular death; and as an adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes. In June 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) expanded the indication, as an addition to diet and exercise, to improve blood sugar control in children 10 years and older with type 2 diabetes. Empagliflozin has shown beneficial effects on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, large-scale randomised controlled trials have demonstrated that empagliflozin decreases heart failure hospitalisations and cardiovascular mortality in adults with heart failure, whether they have reduced, mid-range, or preserved left ventricular ejection fraction and regardless of type 2 diabetes status. There is evidence from high quality studies that empagliflozin can also help to slow the rate of kidney function decline. Irrespective of diabetes status, benefit was observed in those with mild, moderate or severe loss of kidney function. People started on empagliflozin may first see a decrease in kidney function before their glomerular filtration rate stabilises. Greatest benefit was demonstrated in those who had severe loss of kidney function, higher risk of kidney function worsening and background of diabetes. Empagliflozin is also available as the fixed-dose combinations empagliflozin/linagliptin, empagliflozin/metformin, and empagliflozin/linagliptin/metformin.
== Efficiency of ATP production == The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.
The concentrations of species in equilibrium are usually calculated under the assumption that activity coefficients are either known or can be ignored. In this case, each equilibrium constant for the formation of a complex in a set of multiple equilibria can be defined as follows
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Eastern Docks === Dover's Eastern Docks were used for ship breaking beginning during the First World War, when the Admiralty began dismantling ships there. The Stanlee Shipbreaking and Salvage Co. Ltd. took over the ship breaking operation commercially in 1920. Many of the ships broken up were naval vessels from the First World War. The company also handled machinery and general scrap, including the dismantling of the Dover Promenade Pier. The yard began to shrink after World War II and was closed in 1964 to make way for port redevelopment and a car ferry terminal. From 1930 until 1950 an aerial ropeway carried coal from Tilmanstone colliery, 7½ miles to the north. It emerged halfway up the Langdon cliffs directly above the Eastern harbour arm, through two portals which have been bricked up but can still be seen from the ferry port. Coal was deposited in bunkers at the outer end of the Eastern harbour arm. The ropeway had 600 1-ton buckets that departed at intervals of 21 seconds and travelled at 4½ miles per hour. The system could thus transport 120 tons of coal per hour.
m2 or 131.2 hectares. In a graphene sheet, each atom is connected to its three nearest carbon neighbors by σ-bonds, and a delocalized π-bond, which contributes to a valence band that extends over the whole sheet. This type of bonding is also seen in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The valence band is touched by a conduction band, making graphene a semimetal with unusual electronic properties that are best described by theories for massless relativistic particles. Charge carriers in graphene show linear, rather than quadratic, dependence of energy on momentum, and field-effect transistors with graphene can be made that show bipolar conduction. Charge transport is ballistic over long distances; the material exhibits large quantum oscillations and large nonlinear diamagnetism.
== Research == Frank's laboratory projects include an evaluation of MALDI-TOF identification of microorganisms and molecular methods for microbial identification. Frank's research collaboration with Juliane Bubeck Wardenburg in the departments of pediatrics and microbiology at the University of Chicago focused on the pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Using microarray analysis of murine lung RNA, we examined the response of the host to a virulent Staphylococcal strain compared to a strain deficient in the alpha-toxin. We determined that the cellular immune response to infection was characterized by a prominent TH17 response to the wild-type pathogen. Investigation of the host-pathogen interaction and the pathogenesis of Staphylococcal lung injury will contribute to programs aimed at the development of novel therapeutic approaches for Staphylococcal disease.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Similar conditions == A food craving is an intense desire to consume a specific food, as opposed to general hunger. Similarly, thirst is the craving for water. A concept of food noise or food chatter has gotten more attention in the early 2020s since the advent of antiobesity indications for a class of medications called GLP-1 agonists (e.g., semaglutide). Food noise is a mental preoccupation with food in general (as opposed to one specific food) that is largely independent from physiological hunger but nonetheless is distracting for many people; it includes recurring thoughts about what one has or hasn't eaten in recent hours, what one would like to eat right now or "shouldn't" eat right now, and what one might be eating (or "should" avoid eating) in upcoming hours. Among people for whom these medications are effective in helping with weight loss, most express that the level of food noise in their mind is noticeably reduced. Even without these medications, some people may be able to reduce food noise by modifying their dietary patterns and exercise; this is more effective for some people than others. An expert panel convened in 2024 defined food noise as "Persistent thoughts about food that are perceived by the individual as being unwanted and/or dysphoric and may cause harm to the individual, including social, mental, or physical problems." The group also developed and conducted a rigorous, multi-step evaluation of an instrument to measure food noise (Ro-Allison-Indiana-Dhurandhar Food Noise Instrument, or RAID-FN).
[CS] = Keq[C]1/n The Freundlich isotherm is used when the column can bind to many different samples in the solution that needs to be purified. Because the many different samples have different binding constants to the beads, there are many different Keqs. Therefore, the Langmuir isotherm is not a good model for binding in this case.
However, the situation might be more complex, since modern computational studies have established that traditional examples of proximity effects cannot be related directly to enzyme entropic effects. Also, the original entropic proposal has been found to largely overestimate the contribution of orientation entropy to catalysis.
Some statins, including atorvastatin (Lipitor), lovastatin (Mevacor), and simvastatin (Zocor, Simlup, Simcor, Simvacor) In contrast, pravastatin (Pravachol), fluvastatin (Lescol), and rosuvastatin (Crestor) are unaffected by grapefruit. Anti-arrhythmics including amiodarone (Cordarone), dronedarone (Multaq), quinidine (Quinidex, Cardioquin, Quinora), disopyramide (Norpace), propafenone (Rythmol) and carvedilol (Coreg) Amlodipine: Grapefruit increases the available amount of the drug in the blood stream, leading to an unpredictable increase in antihypertensive effects. Anti-migraine drugs ergotamine (Cafergot, Ergomar), amitriptyline (Elavil, Endep, Vanatrip) and nimodipine (Nimotop) Erectile dysfunction drugs sildenafil (Viagra), tadalafil (Cialis) and vardenafil (Levitra) Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol, brand name Tylenol) concentrations increase in the blood of mice when they consume white and pink grapefruit juice, with the white juice acting faster. "The bioavailability of paracetamol was significantly reduced following multiple GFJ administration" in mice and rats. This suggests that repeated intake of grapefruit juice reduces the efficacy and bioavailability of acetaminophen/paracetamol in comparison with a single dose of grapefruit juice, which conversely increases the efficacy and bioavailability of acetaminophen/paracetamol.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
It is a 28-residue synthetic peptide studied as an immune-modulating agent and approved as a drug in some countries. The sequence matches a naturally occurring fragment isolated from thymus tissue. It is not a hormone in the endocrine sense.